A-Z Pharma science

Second Messengers Involved in GPCRs Earlier we have discussed the basics of signal transduction, G-protein coupled receptor( GPCR ) and its basic signaling pathway. Now we’ll discuss the Targets of G-proteins / Second Messenger Systems involved in it. Most important 5 key factors in receptor mechanism: Second messengers are the molecules that convey the signals received on the cell surface via receptor to target molecules in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus. They also play a major role in the amplification of the signals. cAMP Pathway: cAMP (cyclic 3,5- adenosine monophosphate) is a nucleotide synthesized in the cell by the membrane-bound enzyme   Adenylyl Cyclase (AC) . Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the cyclization of ATP→ cAMP by cleaving pyrophosphate (PPi). AC is activated by G s α subunit and inhibited by the G i α subunit. Thus, modulation of the catalytic activity of AC controls the increase or decrease in the concentration of cAMP in the cell. PKA: cAMP activates the enzym...

Nuclear Receptor Nuclear receptors are intracellular receptors that bind to small lipophilic ligands which diffuse through the membrane to interact with the target. The receptor-ligand complex activates the transcription factors in the nucleus and either activate or repress the transcription of mRNA and the synthesis of proteins. These receptors have prolonged actions lasting through hours to days. Structure of the Receptor: Nuclear hormone receptors contain four major domains: The N-terminal ligand-binding domain (12 helices) contains an activation region (AF-1) essential for transcriptional regulation followed by two zinc fingers that bind to DNA (the DNA-binding domain). The C-terminal contains a hinge region and a ligand-binding domain with specific sets of amino acid residues for binding co-activators and co-repressors in second activation region (AF- 2).  Structure of the nuclear receptor Types of Nuclear receptor: Signal Transduction Pathway:...

Atom The fundamental building blocks of matters are atoms- not be further divisible. The word ‘atom’ was derived from the Greek word ‘ a-tomio ’ which literally means “non-divisible”. The atomic theory of matter was first proposed by a British schoolteacher John Dalton in 1808 which is known to us as Dalton’s atomic theory . This theory explains the law of conversion of mass, constant composition, and the law of multiple proportions of an atom. However, it failed to explain why substances like glass or ebonite get electrically charged when rubbed with silk or fur. Sub-Atomic Particles: The structure of an atom was obtained from various experiments on electrical discharge through gases. The experiments which were followed to discover the subatomic particles are as follows- Michael Faraday and many scientists in 1850 , known as Cathode ray discharge tube which conclude that- the movement of cathode rays from cathode to anode in the presence of electrical or magnetic fie...

PHARMACY & PHARMACISTS – “Cogitation towards Faith” Pharmacy, the word derived from the Greek word ‘Pharmakon’ means drug- drugs in a specific concentration and dosages are called medicine , and Medicines are lifesavers that cure disease and disorders by maintaining and regulating homeostasis. History of Pharmacy: From the era of ancient history, humans were using the crude extract from plants, animal, and mineral sources for treating diseases from which the traditional system of medication has started and with the passages of time Ayurveda, Unani, Allopath have evolved. The evolution of the pharmacy profession follows five milestones: Ancient Era - The beginning of time to AD 1600 Empiric Era - 1600 - 1940 Industrialization-1940 - 1970 Patient Care Era - 1970 - Present Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering Era- The new horizon In the last decade the changing lifestyle, with the advancement of fast food and the rise in pollution has caused an exponential r...

       Spectroscopy is a study where we can observe how properties of a matter interact with various types of radiated energy (mainly electromagnetic radiation) of the electromagnetic spectrum. The properties of matter absorb the energy and create an excited state . Basic of Electromagnetic Radiation: Wavelength: Distance between two Crests and two Troughs are called as wavelength.                                                         Denoted by- λ, Unit for wavelength- Ǻ, µ, nm, mµ,  etc.                                                                              ...

A cell for its own survival performs gene transcription, connects via cell signaling, maintains its ionic balance, and undergo many such physiological functions. For all these, proper signal transduction is crucial and that occurs via receptors. The receptors' various components and its mechanistic pathway will be discussed here: Receptors on the surface of cells have two major functions:           (1) Ligand Binding      (2) Message Propagation Two functional domains are present within the receptor:           (1) A Ligand Binding Domain (LBD)   (2) An effector domain SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY: The actions of a receptor imply directly on its cellular target , on effector proteins, or on Transducers (intermediate cellular signaling molecules). In maximum cases, the ultimate target of a receptor is an enzyme, ion channel or transport protein that create/move/degrade sm...